Hein outlines four major educational theories: Didactic/Expository, Discovery, Stimulus-Response and Constructivism. Each theory travels along what Hein calls continuums: the first is based on theories of epistemology (what knowledge is and how it is attained), the second route is based on theories of learning.
Theories of Knowledge
Epistemology's continuum has two main extremes at either end. The first views all knowledge as existing outside the individual, the second, that all knowledge is derived from within the individual. The former is also known as a realist epistemology, and focuses on the subject itself being learned, as it exists independent of, and outside, the learner. In the museum context, a realist curator views the objects as having a meaning in the real world, independent of individual interpretation. The the focus of the curator's educational plan, therefore, is not the viewer/learner, but the subject itself.
An idealist creator, on the other hand, views knowledge as residing within the individual's own consciousness, and that true reality can never be known; rather, 'truth' is subjective to individual interpretation, which is also dependent upon the individual's personal and social history. An exhibition in this context will not expect a defined learning outcome, but will take into account the fact that multiple perspectives are possible - and probable. The knowledge continuum, as outlined by Hein, looks like this:
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| Hein's continuum of theories of knowledge. Source: Hein (1998: 18). |
Somewhere in the middle of this continuum, this road of polar extremes, I believe the 'truth' (for want of a better expression) really lies (and yes, I do see the irony of believing in a truth!). An individual can gain no knowledge of anything (except possibly themselves) if there is no greater world around them to gain knowledge of. Likewise, knowledge in itself needs minds to exist within, and therefore cannot exist without individual thought and interpretation. In addition, there is the issue of the great pool of knowledge which came from individual minds and is passed on to others, particularly those important discoveries that fundamentally changed the way we think about the world around us, such as theories of gravity, as Hein exemplifies. On the other hand, one person's knowledge can effect the way others gain knowledge, and this is particularly true for the museum, where curators decide what and how objects are displayed, leading to possible interpretations through the presentation of supporting text, or, in other cases, lack thereof. In other words, one person's inner knowledge gives rise to incidences outside of themselves that affect the way others gain knowledge, and, as this is happening in many ways all around us every day, it is highly improbable that external knowledge can exist without internal knowledge, and vice versa.
Theories of Learning
Hein also provides a continuum for theories of learning, each end also with its own extreme. At one end is transmission-absorption, which entails a teacher (or curator) transmitting the message to be learned, and the learner absorbing it. This places more emphasis on the teacher as the active participant, as they incrementally transmit their knowledge of a subject in small enough portions to be absorbed by the more passive learner - the vessel to be filled.
On the other end of the continuum is the notion that learners construct knowledge of their own accord. A teacher or curator might wish to impart certain knowledge of a subject onto the learner, but this does not necessarily mean this is the meaning the learner will construct for themselves. The central point to this end of the continuum is the learner.
Hein's continuum of learning theories looks like this:
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| Hein's continuum of learning theories. Source: Hein (1998: 23). |
Theories of Teaching
These theoretical approaches are met with the third element to Hein's educational theories; how to apply them in practice through theories of teaching. He joins together the continuum of theories of knowledge with that of theories of learning to create the four quadrants of teaching theory:
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| Hein's four quadrants of learning theories. Source: Hein (1998: 25). |
The Didactic/Expository pedagogy focuses exclusively on the subject. It's theory of knowledge is based on knowledge existing exclusively outside the learner, and needs to be learned incrementally. In short, something is taught and it is then absorbed (Hein 1998). A good example of this is rote learning of mathematical tables, scientific formulas or the dates of historical events for impending exams. the teacher teaches facts and the student absorbs them, then regurgitates them at a later date. Many critics of this kind of learning stress that it does not encourage critical thinking, and that knowledge is not easily adaptable to other situations, such as the creation of new formulas for maths or science.
Historically, museums have imparted knowledge from this view; the professional to the layman. Didactic programs were popular in the 19th Century, around the time that museums started to be recognised as important educational institutions for the masses. As educational theories have changed, so too have many museums shifted their focus towards more visitor-focused education policies.
On the lower half of the incremental learning scale is Stimulus-Response pedagogy.
On the other half of the learning theory continuum is Discovery and Constructivism. Discovery is interesting, and perhaps paradoxical, in that it allows for learner-based 'hands and minds on' discovery, by acknowledging the importance of first hand experience in learning, but sets definitive learning outcomes. In contrast, Constructivism is more concerned with what is already in the learner's mind, and, at its most extreme, experience, not teaching per se, is the best way to learn. Hein contends that Constructivism places more demands on a teacher, as they have to provide a stimulating and engaging environment for the students to learn within.
Even at its most extreme, even constructivism, it could be argued, is also dependent upon the reality outside the learner to exist, and a purely didactic classroom is also only effective if the students gain an internal understanding of the material being taught. This brings us back to theories of knowledge, and how they cannot exist without each other.
Educational theories, designers and exhibitions
So, why must a designer who is working on an exhibition consider the educational theories of the institution they are working for? Because the educational policies can greatly effect the way in which we, as designers, present information. The parameters we are allowed to work within are always tied to the client's needs, and understanding how a curator wishes to communicate information is fundamental to understanding their design needs.
Typography is particularly dependent upon this understanding. If you know the exhibition is curated from a Constructivist point of view, or from a more didactic policy, this can lead you to a greater understanding of what is to be communicated and how, and radically affect the choice of typeface, layout and even the type of materials the type is to appear on.
It's food for thought, isn't it?
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